Lemmings are wonderful small creatures that make vibrant exotic pets for pet enthusiasts with unique taste. Lemmings basically belong to the rodent family and are also connected with a number of myths and spooky ideas. One of the greatest myths that got busted quite recently was the lemming mass suicide actions. It is now clear that lemmings do not commit any kind of suicide, mass or alone, and it is only their natural migration instinct that makes them follow each other and sometimes end up in skidding downhill. If you are planning to adopt pet lemmings, then rest assured that they can be tamed with a little bit of effort. Here are some tips on taming your lemmings to become friendlier with you.

In order to tame a lemming, the first thing you will need to do is to provide your lemmings with their natural habitat. Of course we can’t just replicate the wild in our homes but still we can do our best to make it as close as possible. This will actually help your timid and scared lemmings to get cozy and comfy with their surroundings.

Make sure to feed your lemmings at regular intervals. Lemmings are from the rodent family and continuous nibbling and biting are a part of their character. It is important that you don’t treat them with high carbohydrate and sugary food, as this can prove fatal for them. If you feel comfortable, try to feed them using your gloved hands. This will withdraw owner fear from the lemmings and after some time you see that they won’t be scared from your presence.

It is also essential that your lemmings must not be exposed to your other pet animals such as cats, dogs etc. Exposing them to these pets of yours can make your lemmings become extra fearful of their surroundings and you!

Make your presence count in from of the lemmings. It’s a natural instinct of every animal that if an owner spends some time with them, they tend to attach themselves to the owner. Just stand by the cage and see these lemmings do funny stuff like skidding and fighting. After some time you will see that they will also stare back at you from the cage and this is the time you can even hold them in your hands.

Do not ever try to hold a lemming in your hand that you have just adopted. Make sure that they get enough time to get used to their new home and surrounding. After 10 days or so you can attempt to hold them in your hands. If you have followed the above mentioned techniques then there are chances that lemmings won’t be repelling your grip.

The bottom line is that you will need to share some love with lemmings in order to let them love you.

According to the definition which is given by the WHO (1975), the dependence on tobacco is considered to be installed when a consumer consumes t shirt design daily, even if only once, tobacco. Among those consumers who have lost the freedom to use occasionally, the desire to overcome addiction to smoking majority. And in Britain 78% of smokers would like to be non-smoking on the horizon of one year and 80% have attempted in the past 5 years (and already 75% in the age group 16-25 years) 1 . Several ways to proceed are possible to overcome the addiction to smoking, which is considered a disease . Some are valued using the usual protocols of the scientific process and can be recommended to health professionals. Others can not be evaluated with these criteria and are addressed prior to public health. They are also very much used. Stopping without external assistance remains the most common. This article focuses on smoking cessation induced by smoke inhalation, other rarer forms of regular use ( oral tobacco , plug ) exist. Summary  [ hide ] A stop without outside assistance 2 Medical Management 2.1 Nicotine replacement therapy 2.2 Bupropion 2.3 Varenicline 2.4 Other pharmacological treatments Three non-drug aid 3.1 cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) 3.2 Self-taught 3.3 Hotline 3.4 forums, support groups and online help 3.5 Enclosures programmable 3.6 Financial incentives 3.7 Method Allen Carr 4 unconventional Aids 4.1 Tobacco-Free Cigarettes 4.2 Electronic Cigarette 4.3 Homeopathy 4.4 Hypnotherapy 4.5 Acupuncture 4.6 Auriculotherapy 5 Effects due to the shutdown 5.1 Positive effects 5.2 Adverse Effects 6 Notes and references 7 See also 7.1 Related 7.2 External Links Stop without outside assistance

A medical treatment is recommended when co-morbidity or risk of complications (hospitalization, depression, pregnancy, multiple drug use, treatment history, or neuropsychiatric, etc.).. The time required for consultation limits the individual care in Liberal . In France in 2008 were 646 registered clinics in smoking cessation medicine, almost equally divided between public (303) and private (343). It should allow 4 to 6 consultations over several months. These services draw some of their effectiveness in supporting a tobacco specialist trained in the management of the psychological component of addiction . They are often accompanied by a pharmacological treatment to reduce cravings and cravings during the weaning period. There is no known cure for the prevention of recurrence 4 . Given the awareness created by the pharmacological effects of smoking , the decision to permanently cease smoking is required. Nicotine replacement therapy

Nicotine patch A self-adhesive stamp diffuse slowly nicotine through the skin, thus maintaining a titration of nicotine and reduces | removes prints missing. The usual treatment lasts eight weeks, with gradual reduction of dosage. The initial dosage is based on the evaluation of the intensity of tobacco dependence and the results of the measurement of CO hcg diet plan expired. In a Cochrane meta-analysis, the rate of arrest for 12 months in the clinical setting is 13.7% 5 ; independent studies have shown an efficiency smaller (on 100 attempts, 3-6 confirmed cases to 12 months) 6 . Through one of these clinical studies is that participants easily recognized if the treatment provided to them is that containing the active ingredient (nicotine) or placebo (no physiological effect) where appropriate, to compare the results no longer of meaning. There are other modes of administration of NRT: gum, inhalers, sprays (not allowed in France), lozenges, sublingual tablets … About stopping development, these different specialties have a nicotine effective than transdermal patches. They are sometimes associated with him, to try to increase the success rate. In France, the patches are sold in pharmacies, possibly prescription (the prescription is required for minors). Since 1 February 2007, health insurance funds to the tune of € 50 per beneficiary per year and the purchase of pharmaceutical nicotine (patch, gum, lozenge, etc..) Prescribed by a health professional. May 31, 2011, participation has increased to 150 euros for pregnant women. In Quebec, the patches are also sold in pharmacies. First prescription are now available free. Insurance companies no longer require the order to pay the insured. Bupropion  The bupropion is approved as psychotropic antidepressant in the United States and it was found that one of its side effects was to reduce the craving of patients under treatment. The product inhibits the reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine which reduces a smoker’s sense of relief to the lack of nicotine in the decision. This drug amphetamine marketed in 2001 by GlaxoSmithKline under the brand name Zyban ° allow a withdrawal rate of confirmed 12 months after the beginning of treatment 15% (source Pfizer), almost twice the likelihood of quitting compared treatment to placebo 7 . It is prescription and requires medical supervision as it is accompanied by side effects and has a long list of cons-indications. Varenicline  Main article: varenicline . Marketed in France since February 2007 by Pfizer, the varenicline use this similar to bupropion . It is marketed under the brand name Champix in Europe and Chantix in the United States. Varenicline is only available on prescription. Varenicline works by reducing the intensity of craving and the craving: the only occupant alpha4bêta2 nicotinic receptors in the brain, it reduces the effect of inhaled nicotine on the reward system (it is a partial agonist). Smoking loses much of its interest. With a regular and intensive counseling including a weekly with a therapist during the first 3 months, the probability of weaning to 12 months of smoking without complications or psychiatric disease after 12 weeks of treatment compliance is an average of 22.4% (placebo treatment reaching 10% ) 8 . In another clinical study, the rate of smoking cessation at 52 weeks was 19% 9 . In a third study initiated by the manufacturer, after 7 weeks of treatment, the abstinence rate at 52 weeks was 14.4% 10 . These results are dependent on the quality of support and monitoring during the tests. There are many side effects. In France, it is no longer since May 2011 the list of products used in the treatment of 50 euros. Other pharmacological treatments  The cytisine is used in this part for decades in some countries 11 , including Eastern Europe 12 . It seems more effective than placebo and interest is all the more important it is much cheaper than other available pharmacological solutions 13 . Given the importance of health issues, many research products aid cessation smoking or to a reduction in consumption is in progress. Another track in clinical trials aimed at preventing recidivism by producing antibodies that prevent nicotine temporarily irrigate the brain during a deviation from abstinence. By analogy with the immunological prevention of infectious diseases and lack of other suitable term, these treatments are currently appointed vaccines . Non-drug aid

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)  These therapies have the advantage of allowing an objective scientific validation. They improve the results of drug treatment of medical care. This is the first-line treatment for pregnant women (Consensus Conference 1999). They can also be proposed without any medication and, if so, have the same results as the medication without any side effects. The emphasis in France being on the medical approach to smoking cessation specialist center, the TCC are little used for smoking cessation. Self-taught  There are several practical works of authors who have stopped smoking and how to permanently stop
smoking. Hotline  The Customer Service Centre did not result in France to a rigorous medical assessment. These services – from a low value / cost [ref. required] – are weak in practice: approx. 4000 calls for Tobacco Info Service in May 2011 by former 14 . Forums, support groups and online help  The Internet has enabled the development of volunteer groups support, moderate or self, eg. : discussion forums (eg Stop-tabac.ch ) social networks on Twitter , Facebook , etc.. Different pharmaceutical manufacturers also offer free coaching to support drug (sometimes called therapeutic education). Thanks to internet, interactive versions of software helps stop are proposed, including iCoach , available free in all 23 official languages ​​of the European Union, or the Coach Stop-tabac.ch site , also free . The effectiveness of that tool is still being evaluated but published studies tend to confirm its usefulness 15 , 16 . Similarly, there are computer programs, on car transport company computers or game consoles, to assist in smoking cessation. They have some use 17 . Cases programmable  The technique of programmable box to stop smoking dates back to 1970. Indeed it is reported that the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, heavy smoker, would have used this case to limit its own use of cigarettes 18 . The housings programmable most often slightly larger than a standard pack of cigarettes. They casino are equipped with an electronic programmer, use of buttons and a flap opening with a lock. The user inserts his cigarettes in the housing program and the number of openings he wants a predetermined period of time, or the length of time between cigarettes. Some cases call the smoker to select a specific program of gradual reduction. The housings are designed programmable to act on the act of smoking and its psychology. They are a gradual withdrawal, while limiting the risk of relapse or skidding. Financial incentive  Financial incentives can improve the efficiency of an attempt to stop smoking. In an experiment with employees of a large company, 15% of smokers financial incentive for success were abstinent at 12 months, compared to only 5% of candidates who are not financial incentive to stop (pharmaceutical aid being provided free of charge and at will in both cases) 19 . It therefore seems that a financial incentive increases the chances of success, although in absolute terms, this result is modest. This is why the experiment result of subsidy in Scotland 20 has led the government to stop this policy deemed effective and low cost 21 . Allen Carr  The method Allen Carr , the English name of its author, is based on understanding the mental processes of psychological addiction to smoking. In reading his works or after sessions of group presentations, the smoker can achieve the insoluble contradiction between his desire to continue smoking and desire to overcome what has become an addiction. It follows a kind of revelation that lose meaning and pleasure to continue smoking. Once apprehended psychological dependence, physical electric cigarette dependence (withdrawal symptoms) and behavioral dependence (habits) does not preclude abstinence sustainable according to this author. Allen Carr on the idea that once you became a non smoker, you must learn to live all the situations that we may live before enjoying them more, and this requires an apprenticeship. And who says learning repeated words. So what is repeated is important: if every thought of smoking, the person arrested must be resisted and said she does not smoke, does an anchor? The idea of ​​smoking pleasure or help. Allen Carr teaches a method to evoke rather: “How fortunate not to have to take that cigarette!” payday loan and that whenever the urge to smoke occurs. According to his publisher in France, sales of the different versions of the book have exceeded one million copies in French, which is considerable for a health book. The impact of these sales on the facilitation of smoking cessation has not been measured. Allen Carr has also developed an international network of franchises providing the method sessions. A special feature is that the players are, as was Allen Carr, former smokers. There is provided a refund to customers who do not consider themselves satisfied with the service provided. In France, Allen Carr announced a rate of customers requesting a refund of about 30 to 40% after three months 22 . A medical university of Vienna (Austria) was measured one year after participation in a single session of 6 hours, 53.3% were still not smoking past 12 months. At 36 months the rate was 51.6% 23 . However, the study participants were not obliged to stick to the Allen Carr method, some have also used nicotine replacement therapy. Aid unconventional

Cigarettes without tobacco  Cigarettes without tobacco plants consist of smoking ( coltsfoot , hazel , sage , etc.).. Compared to conventional cigarettes, their main interest is to allow the reproduction of the act of smoking and avoid slipping back into addiction to smoking. Their sales pharmacy was banned in France in October 2006 are now on sale in newsagents. Electronic cigarette  Main article: Electronic Cigarette . This device is a self-administration of nicotine whose status varies by country. Unlike other devices, it provides a steam vaporizer recalling flavored tobacco smoke by flavor (tastes are different) its heat, comparable to that of a cigarette, gestures (suction grip, etc.).. The electric version of the inhaler is also promoted as a way to avoid passive smoking for nonsmokers. The device is shaped like a small cylinder a little longer than a real cigarette and generates an aerosol which gives the appearance of smoke from a cigarette. The location of the filter contains a replaceable cartridge filled with liquid, whose main ingredients are the nicotine , the artificial flavor of tobacco and propylene glycol (or glycerin plant). The exact composition of this fluid is not given by the suppliers. During aspiration, a microswitch active resistance that heats the liquid mixture aromatic + air inhaled by the user. In some cases, an LED located at the end simulates a combustion web hosting review chamber. The device simulates the act of smoking and delivers the vaporized mixture at a temperature of 50-60 ° C comparable to that of a cigarette. The rate of nicotine varies with cartridge used for possibly a gradual reduction in consumption 24 . The electronic cigarette is not validated as a remedy to smoking by health authorities 25 . Some doctors and researchers, including Michael Siegel 26 or Carl V. Phillips 27 , criticized the health authorities who advise against the use, accusing them of possible links of interest with the pharmaceutical industry . An Italian study published in October 2011 led by Professor Riccardo Polosa 28 shows a smoking cessation or at least a halving of cigarette smoking in 55% of a cohort of 40 smokers do not particularly want to stop the tobacco. However, the authors conclude, the small size of the cohort requires more extensive testing. In France, the status of this product is currently defined by the point information AFSSAPS 29 . The sale of electronic cigarettes depends on the objective and the substances contained in the cartridges: If smoking cessation is claimed, the cartridge contains nicotine or not, the electronic cigarette meets the definition of the drug and should, as such, obtain the authorization (MA). The inhalation system itself meets the definition of the medical device and must be CE marked. Although no therapeutic claim is claimed, the electronic cigarette is also likely to meet the definition of the drug if the amount of nicotine in the cartridge is greater than 10 mg. When the cessation is not claimed and that the cartridge does not contain any material that may be described as drug (including nicotine), Relevant Life Policy the electronic cigarette is the regulation on the general safety of products made available to the public. Homeopathy  This section does not cite his sources enough . Thank you to add a note references verifiable or template {{}} reference desired . The principle of homeopathy is to fight evil with evil by using the active substance that causes the symptoms of intoxication with tobacco, infinitesimal doses or nonexistent. Homeopathy treatment is tailored to each case and the most common can be found: Tabacum  : tobacco; Nux vomica  : nux vomica; Anacardium Orientale  : beans from Malacca; Gelsemium sempervirens  : jasmine; Lobelia inflata  : swollen lobelia, Indian tobacco; Staphysagria  : staphisaigre . The treatment is partially reimbursed by the social security and can be combined with other methods of weaning. However, the effectiveness of this method, compared to a placebo , has not been scientifically confirmed. It is considered not validated by the Health Authority and the AFSSAPS class among the treatment ineffective and not recommended 30 . Hypnotherapy  The hypnosis is to reduce the urge to smoke and increase the desire to stop reinforcing the unconscious resources to stop smoking and maintain abstinence. For example, the unfolding classic American psychiatrist Herbert Spiegel has three main suggestions: tobacco smoke is a poison; the body should be protected from smoke and pleasant it is possible to live without smoking. This suggestion does not imply a hierarchical relationship to the therapist: the customer is invited to participate in his own therapy and to learn self-hypnosis. One or two sessions are usually sufficient. Hypnotherapy is not medically validated practices for smoking cessation, its efficacy has not been demonstrated. It is classified by the AFSSAPS among the treatment ineffective and not recommended 30 . Acupuncture  The acupuncture based on traditional Chinese principles, is sometimes used as an aid to smoking cessation. Other processes include derivatives acupressure, laser and electrical stimulation. The review of trials in experimental context has not established that acupuncture or related techniques significantly increased the success rate in smoking cessation acupuncture compared with a placebo (by placing the needles in places other than those considered sensitive) 31 . Acupuncture is classified by the AFSSAPS among the treatment ineffective and not recommended 30 . Auriculotherapy  The Auriculotherapy is a therapeutic method of French origin, the effects are due to an action of neurological 32 . It involves the insertion of needles into specific points of the ear. Stimulation of these points would disappear almost instantly feelings of lack, via neural pathways whose existence is discussed. Auriculotherapy is classified by the AFSSAPS among the treatment ineffective and not recommended 30 . Effects from stopping

This section does not cite his sources enough . Thank you to add a note references verifiable or template {{}} reference desired . Positive effects  Among the benefits that can be attributed to smoking cessation include: Feeling of liberation compared to dependency past energy pleasure to find his sense of smell, skin tone brighter, better breath, tone of voice more clearly, cna certification Negative effects  Stopping smoking is frequently associated with a transition manifesting inconvenience passengers: drowsiness, hunger, cough, chat in the throat, gums may bleed when aware of brushing, difficulty in coping with strong emotions, difficulty concentrating, tiredness, palapitations heart irritability

These symptoms are improving in a few weeks in general. It is recommended that a medical monitoring for smokers with complications, including diabetes, depression or psychiatric illness.

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Capsules

Bulbs A drug is a substance presented as having properties for curative, preventive and managed to establish a diagnosis. A drug is most often intended to cure, to promote healing, relieve or prevent disease in humans or animals. Summary  [ hide ] An Expanded Definition 1.1 Official definition 1.2 Concepts relating 2 Shares of the drug 2.1 Active substance and excipients 2.2 Principle of bioequivalence 3 History 4 Drug Development 4.1 Creation of drug 4.2 Clinical Studies 5 Therapeutic Categories 6 Prescription and dispensation 6.1 Terms of delivery 6.2 Conditions of prescription drug lists 7 Administration of the drug 8 Efficiency and drug evaluation 8.1 Benefit / Risk 8.2 adverse drug events 8.3 Drugs and anaphylactic reactions 8.4 Possible Effects paradoxical 8.5 Drug Interactions 8.6 Contraindications 8.7 Pharmacovigilance 9 Commercial aspects 9.1 Naming of drugs 9.2 Sale of drugs 10 Issues surrounding the drug 10.1 Reviews of the pharmaceutical industry 10.2 Issue of Reimbursement: access to medicines and over-consumption 10.3 Access to medicines 10.4 What happens to expired medications or not used in France? 10.5 Environmental contamination (including water) by drug residues human or veterinary 11 Notes and references 12 Related Items 13 See also Expanded definition

Official definition  The concept of medicine is precisely defined in France by Article L5111-1 of the Code of Public Health  : “Drug means any substance or compound presented for treating or preventing against diseases in humans or animals and any substance or compound that can be used in humans or animals, or they can be administered with a view to making a medical diagnosis or to restoring, correcting or modifying physiological Cell Phone Accessories functions by exerting a pharmacological, immunological or metabolic. Are considered as drug products diet containing in their composition of chemical or biological substances that do not constitute themselves food , but whose presence gives these products, or special properties sought for therapeutic diet, or properties test meal. Products used for disinfection of the premises and for the denture are not considered drugs. When, having regard to locksmiths all of its characteristics, a product is likely to meet both the definition of the drug in the first paragraph and to other categories of products regulated by the Community or national law, it is When in doubt, considered a drug. ” We can distinguish different types of drugs according to their use, their components, their mode of registration regulations, etc.. : Generic Bio-similar drug Orphan Drug Biologic Herbal medicine Essential drug Related concepts  Dosage  : the usual dose of medication . It depends on the disease, patient age, weight and some specific factors: renal function, liver function. It should of course be modified in any way without any medical advice or pharmacist. Pharmacokinetics  : the speed at which the active substance of the drug will be absorbed, distributed throughout the body, metabolized (processed) and then eliminated from the body. It conditions the method of setting: oral (by mouth), intravenous …, the daily number of catches, their schedule, the daily dose (daily). Schematically, the pharmacokinetics is the study of the action of the body on the drug. Pharmacodynamics  : the mechanism of action of the active substance will lead to therapeutic effects. Schematically, pharmacodynamics is the study of drug action on the body. Hint  : it is the disease for which the drug is used. Cons-indication  : it is or situations where the taking of medication can be dangerous. The latter should therefore not be given. We distinguish the cons-indications that in some cases, the benefit-risk of making the molecule is acceptable, and cons-indications where the drug should not be taken, regardless of the expected benefit. Synergy  : this corresponds to the interaction between two drugs with similar pharmaceutical activity. The intensity of the activity of the association is greater than that which could be obtained with any of the drugs administered alone. Potentiation  : it occurs between two drugs that pharmaceutical business is different. Antagonism  : it is an interaction between two drugs that pharmaceutical business is the same or different. Simultaneous administration of two drugs results in electronic cigarette partial or complete inhibition of the action of one of them. Actions of the drug

A medication may have one or more actions, described as: Action replacement  : is to provide the body with the nutrient deficient or physiological (eg, methadone or vitamin C ). Action by direct or indirect reproduction of the effects of a natural substance  : the drug reproduced or stimulates a cellular function or organic, or the transmission of nerve impulses in the CNS (central nervous system) or independently (eg sympathomimetic or parasympathomimetic ). Antagonistic action, direct or indirect effects of a natural substance  : the drug has a partial or complete blockage of a cellular function or organic binding to specific receptors (eg sympatholytic). Mechanical action (eg paraffin oil promote the digestive tract). Action on some metabolic processes  : action on cellular permeability or reactivity of certain cells to their exciting physiological or pathological (eg calcium channel drug (modifying the permeability of calcium ions)). Active substance and excipient  Related Articles: Active substance (drug) and Excipient . The drug consists of two kinds of substances: one or more active substances (also known as active ingredient – it is often the active substance that is designated in the current language per drug) illinois dui lawyer and one or more excipients . The active substance consist of a quantity of active product (dose) with a pharmacological effect demonstrated interest and therapy also demonstrated clinically. It should be chiropractic marketing noted that any pharmacologically active substance is not necessarily the basis of a drug, much less a drug therapy. The excipients are inert auxiliary substances used in the formulation of the dosage form and intended to create an absorption by the body. These excipients are usually inert substances from the pharmacological. The excipients used to formulate the active substance, that is to say, the active denver injury lawyer substance present in a given dosage form. The formulation allows in addition to presenting the drug in the form best suited to the route of administration desired, and possibly, if necessary, to modulate the release rate of the active substance into the body. As examples of excipients include: the water and sucrose are the excipients constituting the simple syrup – or, for dry forms, or the starches and modified celluloses or modified disintegrants are used in dry forms (tablets, capsules, etc.). to accelerate the decay (or disintegration) of them once they arrive in the stomach. Excipients are the overwhelming majority of chemically inert, pharmacologically inactive. But it turns out they are not always free of pharmacological effects in some patients. Indeed, some excipients are known to cause side effects (eg allergic reactions or intolerance) in a minority of patients particularly susceptible. This is known as excipient noticeable effect . An example Unlock iPhone is the lactose in patients intolerant to lactose. The prescriber or pharmacist should be taken into account when prescribing and dispensing of the drug. This is very important especially when the substitution STD Testing of an original product by a generic form of the original product. The generic product is not necessarily made ​​with the same excipients as the original product of origin. This is one of the reasons why a patient may not tolerate the generic substitution. It should be noted that an active substance may be such a contrast medium (barium sulfate), which is not Denver Divorce Attorney pharmacologically active because it is not intended to treat the patient but to assist in the diagnosis (it is active radiation which will be exposed the patient). The dosage (of Galen , a physician of antiquity) or “art of making drugs” will allow to present the active substance in different doses and in different dosage forms (the forms of administration of the active substance to the patient) . We’ll talk about pills , in capsules , soft capsules, the suppositories , ampoules, drops (oral, eye or nose) of mouthwashes, eye drops, ointments, gels and creams, solutions, suppositories, of patch or patches, etc.. We can thus classify the formulations according to the route of administration to patients for which they were designed. This is known as injectables (ampoules of solution or suspension, implants wedding ring …) for the various parenteral routes (subcutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, intra-articular, …). These forms must be sterile, pyrogen-free, and sometimes isotonic. Other fender flares non-injectable liquid forms are for oral routes (to swallow “oral” or sublingual, enteric-coated or rapid disintegration), nasal, ear and eye, skin patches, but also (patch or patch). There are still forms to track, rectal, eye, ear, etc.. A medicinal product is a drug that has a trade name (which is the subject of a commercial property, business name also called fancy name). Each specialty been registered with the health authorities, which is industrially prepared according to strict standards (Good Manufacturing Practice) and is sold by a pharmaceutical company . Under the same brand name, there are different formulations and different packages, each subject to a specific record. The same specialty may be sold under one or more brand names and will remain protected as long as it will be the subject of intellectual property and protection of intellectual property rights and / or commercial (patent, market exclusivity, license) . Once intellectual property free ipad lost (or exhaustion of patents), the drug can be marketed generic forms say (in addition to existing business forms). Generic forms to be bioequivalent to the brand’s first product on the market yet produced called “originator” or original product. This is not because it absorbs equivalent doses of the same active substance in different forms (a solution instead of a tablet for example) that the desired pharmacological effect will be equivalent. Taking on an empty stomach or after a meal also changes the pharmacological effect of the Bankruptcy active substance. This is known as availability of the active substance or to “bioavailability”. Two forms with the same bioavailability are called bioequivalent. Principle of bioequivalence  Related article: Bioequivalence . The principle of bioequivalence describes two medicines containing the same amount of active substance. The active substances are called bioequivalent if for a group of individuals, their therapeutic effects are estimated biologically equivalent. Differences in physical characteristics of the active substances (crystal structure or polymorphism, crystal size) or formulation characteristics (presence of certain excipients, compression, disintegration, coating, ..) can do that two dosage forms containing the same amount of active substance are very different in terms of making them available to the active substance in the digestive system. It is the same for injectable forms where the active substance is injected in suspension. But as it is difficult and very expensive to test therapeutic equivalence based on clinical trials and / or biological, we test actually changes in the plasma concentration of the active substance unchanged over time, variation resulting from the taking of drug at t = 0. Bioavailability curve is represented by the plasma concentration of unchanged [Cp] = f (t). This is the measure of the area under the curve gives the bioavailability of the active substance as contained in the dosage form. Two drugs [bioequivalent] give average area under the curve (and therefore plasma concentrations of unchanged drug = f (t)) that are equivalent in a population of twenty healthy individuals. To register a generic product, it is necessary to demonstrate a bioequivalence study that the generic is bioequivalent to the form originator. The problems of Bioequivalence , however, and are facing significant for poorly soluble active substances (aqueous solubility below 1 mg / ml) when administered orally or modified dosage forms such as sustained-release forms, yet known forms late. For forms and presented in true solution for injection and injected intravenously as a bolus, by definition there is no difference in bioequivalence between forms since bioavailability is complete (we say that the absolute bioavailability is equal to 1), regardless of specialty injectable used. However, solutions for oral bioavailability is not absolute but relative, as it relates to the speed of gastric transit of each individual (fasting, during or after a meal, light meal or fat, etc..) And a duodenal absorption window, if it exists. Orally, it is always in the relative. To ensure the quality of bioavailability of oral dosage forms, in industrial practice, we test the dissolution rate of oral dosage forms in the laboratory (dissolution test) and this on each lot prior to release to the distribution. The extended-release injectable (intramuscular forms, intra-articular implants, …) can, however, show very different bioavailabilities each other and from the form IV bolus. This does not necessarily mean different therapeutic effects primarily or necessarily superior or inferior. Here begins the area of ​​pharmacokinetics in association with toxicity (human and animal) and clinical studies ((animal and human). History

At the beginning of xx th  century were considered drugs a dozen synthetic products and hundreds of natural products. At the beginning of xxi th  century , we use hundreds of synthetic substances and there are only very few common home remedies only natural. The xx th  century saw the rise of synthetic drugs produced by pharmaceutical companies. Recently, proteins, molecules of life, are increasingly used as a medicine. Development of drugs

Creation of drug  Related article: Creation of medicines . Today, for use in human and animal health, the discovery of a new active substance to the authorization to market (AMM) through the development (s) (the) form ( s), dosage (s) (prescription drug in pharmacies), usually a period of 10 to 15 years will have passed and several hundred million euros have been invested. We can describe the development process the following steps: Finding an original substance to the status of candidate drug candidate in several ways: computer modeling, screening ( screening ), observation of traditional medicine ( medicine man ), study of the characteristics of plants or natural substances (Pharmacognosy), and sometimes for the the random ( seredipity ) during clinical observations. Candidate substances are then most often patented which gives, in this case, the inventor an intellectual property for the commercial exploitation of the drug for a maximum of 20 years. However, since 2009 , begins to develop in the United States of cooperatives to design free of drugs , including genetic one . Study of the effect of the substance in vitro on microorganisms in culture, “ex vivo” on isolated organs or cheap auto insurance quotes biological receptors purified and in vivo , that is to say on laboratory animals alive. Finding a suitable dosage form. We try as much as possible to obtain a stable oral form, it is easiest to take in the future patient. The later stages of research switched in the development of a new medicine are the clinical studies  : For nearly two decades, various clinical studies to be carried out in support of an application for registration (marketing authorization application) are the subject of international standardization (ICH) is recognized by all countries. They are structured in three phases prior to the placing on the market and, Phase IV, after placing on the market. For each new indication and sometimes by category of dosage forms (IV, oral, topical ,…), it will be necessary to reconsider the existing clinical and clinical studies to see if existing can be used to support the new indication / dosage form, or if further studies are necessary and must be taken payment protection insurance before going further. During the marketing copy, bioequivalence studies will be undertaken. An active substance will therefore be of clinical studies almost continuously for all the years of its presence in the market. Clinical studies  Related article: Clinical trial . Various clinical studies are done in phases. Phase I  : Phase I is said to safety and is conducted in normal volunteers . It seeks to establish the lowest active dose and the maximum tolerable. It is understood that for products such as Plastic Containers antibiotics, cancer, etc.. The use of healthy volunteers is excluded. It seeks to know the pharmacokinetics ADME of the molecule (that is to say, the rate of absorption (A = the speed of passage into the blood from an oral solution), M = the rate of metabolism (transformation Organic by the liver and other organs), D = the speed of distribution and distribution in different tissues from the plasma compartment and E = the rate of elimination of the molecule in the body also known as “clearance”) . Ethical aspect As it is unethical to expose healthy volunteers as web hosting review guinea pigs to products very active (anti-cancer, thyroid, hormones, antibiotics, etc..), This phase I in this case is carried out in Phase II patients that they can benefit from the expected therapeutic effect of the product test. In all cases, the patient’s consent after clear information is essential. No experiment can be done without the knowledge of the patient. Phase II  : so-called bioavailability tests on volunteers and patients of effectiveness of voluntary patients. It aims to establish the relationship between dose and effect. It sets the domain (range) of active doses from data obtained on animals in preclinical toxicology. It establishes the “range” of active doses tolerated without trying to reach a maximum dose that would be toxic. This “range” will gradually become “dose” of the product for this indication. It was during these payday loan tests that are detected early side effects, which both confirmed a phase II and IV are often the main side effects of the product. If these effects are too large relative to the interest of the therapeutic effect brought, product development will be stopped. Phase III  : the drug whose pharmacological activity has been confirmed in Phase II must be tested to assess its real clinical value. This phase aims to establish the relationship between benefit and risk. The drug candidate is compared to a reference medicinal engagement ring product and always with placebo (when there is no ethical opposition not to administer the active substance to the patient volunteer) to a larger clinical study. Randomization (lottery) is performed to determine which treatment arm will be the patient. The experiment known as “double blind” is now a standard (neither the patient nor the physician know if it’s a drug, placebo or reference is given). These statistical methods are a guarantee of rigor and quality of data generated in this study. Data from animal toxicology and clinical safety ( safety = phase 2), clinical data ( efficacy ) and pharmacy data ( quality ) are combined into a folder called application for registration is filed for an authorization Market (AMM) to the European Agency (EMEA). If the authority believes (desk review only) that the information filed in support of the application for registration is sufficient, it allows the marketing of the drug but only in approved clinical indications. If the authority considers that further information is required, it will require additional information to be filed before marketing the specialty or to put in a reasonably short period a year two years, but not impede the placing on the market of the drug. The most common case of a medicine containing a new molecule (NCE = New Compound Entity), it is covered by intellectual property rights (patents or patent). This property is obtained by filing a patent application. This intellectual property when granted, runs over a maximum period of 18 to 20 years since the filing of the patent application. After a number of years, the patent of the active substance falls into the public domain , and thus opens the possibility of copying by specialized laboratories in the production of generic drugs . These “generic” must also be recorded. These products are (no longer equivalent but said) substantially similar to the original products, only the Pharmaceutical Marketing Authorisation Application is filed for record. A period known as data protection of 5 years is available from health authorities to prevent generic copies of San Diego Homes For Rent an original, innovative, which has been slow to be developed, rather than the period of patent protection. In France, as in most advanced countries, an experimental drug is produced according to quality criteria equivalent to the product on the market. The law says (Annex I to Decision of 26 May 2006 amending the Order of May 10, 1995 as amended relating to good manufacturing practice (pharmaceutical)) any active ingredient in a pharmaceutical form or placebo being tested or used as a reference biomedical research, including drugs already receiving an authorization for the market, but used or presented or packaged differently for the specialty authorized, or used for an unauthorized indication, or for more information on form of the specialty authorized . Therapeutic categories

Related article: Drug categories . Among the drugs found including family therapy: the anesthetics for local or general anesthetic, topical or injectable form in and analgesics ( painkillers ), acting against the pain the antibiotic , antimicrobial activity with a bacteriostatic and / or bactericidal  ; the antidepressants that treat depression] (see psychotropic ) the anti-diuretics , which decrease the secretion of urine ( diuresis ); the anti-inflammatory drugs acting against the inflammation  ; the antihistamines acting against the allergy ; the antihypertensive fighting against hypertension; the antipyretic acting against the fever  ; the antiviral active against viruses  ; the antiretroviral active against retroviruses  ; the cough that fight against cough the anxiolytic , which reduce anxiety (see psychotropic ) and bronchodilators , which will dilate scrabble word finder the bronchial tubes  ; and diuretics , which increase the secretion of urine ( diuresis ) and decreases the tension; the laxatives , which stimulate bowel movements  ; the psychotropic drugs for the treatment of diseases psychiatric (including neuroleptics , anxiolytics , antidepressants , etc.). and sedatives (tranquilizers), which decrease the activity of an organ; the vasopressors , which raise the blood pressure  ; and so on. that could be grouped into 6 broader categories: (Psyche) (Infections)  (Strong reactions) (Various) anesthetics antidepressants Antibiotics diuretics antipyretics bronchodilators analgesics anxiolytic antiviral anti-diuretic Antihistamines vasopressors sedatives psychotropic antiretroviral Laxatives anti-inflammatory  Note: hypnotics (sleeping pills) and anxiolytics are sometimes grouped under the name of psychotropic drugs , a term which is actually quite large. See Classification by Delay and Deniker (1957) , validated by the World Congress of Psychiatry in 1961. Psychic sedative, slowing down the nervous system: hypnotics (barbiturates), neuroleptics, lithium salts, tranquilizers (anxiolytics), conventional sedative (benzodiazepines) and antiepileptics. This Classification Delay and Deniker (1957) was upgraded later Pelicier and Thuillier (1991) . Prescription and dispensing

Traditionally, drugs are prescribed by doctors to their patients that will be purchased with their pharmacist . Terms of delivery  Related article: Dispensation (medicine) . Some medicines may be available without prescription (we speak of self-medication or medication officinale) in France, when a drug is prescribed but not purchased, it is not reimbursed by the insurance , but it can be done by certain mutual. In most countries, a drug must have obtained an authorization to market (AMM) to be sold. The AMM is known as the NDA (new drug application) in the United States and in NDS (New Drug submission) in Canada. Terms of prescription drug lists  Related article: Medical prescription .

This article or section adopts a regional perspective or cultural and should be internationalized . Thank you for the better or discuss on his talk page  ! Regulators of health maintain lists of drugs based on the risks of their decision. For example, in France, there are many lists of poisonous substances: medicines containing these substances can only be purchased with a prescription (except in limited exemption): List high school seniors I: dangerous drugs (under normal conditions of employment); List II: dangerous drugs, less toxic than those in List I (dangerous abnormal conditions of employment); drugs  : psychotropic substance can spa covers be addictive and harmful effects on mental and physical health. health hazard health hazard List II List I high risk of dependence drugs restricted prescription drugs 2  : those reserved for hospital use those who can not be prescribed by a hospital doctor those requiring specific monitoring and prescription by a physician exception drugs: very expensive drugs, they must be specifically monitored Wire Cart Covers and justifications for medical care. medications and limited exception. The weight loss pills following table summarizes these cases (the last 3 columns are also prescription required): refund? Optional prescription mandatory requirement restricted prescription List II List I no refund medic. counter, non-prescription N / A? N / A? Repay. low to normal medic. counter, prescription very common case reserved for hospital use, prescribed by a hospital doctor, or physician specializing medic. less dangerous than Schedule I medic. dangerous support exceptional N / A medic. exceptional medic. limited and exceptional Drug administration

pack of pills The drug can be administered, depending on the dosage form, by several routes of administration  : globally (systemic): the active substance passes into the blood and transported throughout the body to achieve its target: oral administration called po  : tablet, syrup, capsule, oral solution, granulated suppository transdermal (through the skin), for example to overcome the urge to smoke, or as anti-inflammatory or analgesic (morphine) The administration by the parenteral route is made ​​through an injection. It can be intravenously , it will be said at once as a bolus or by infusion slow. The vein can be superficial, usually in the arm ( peripheral vein ) or deep ( central venous catheter ), usually in the neck (jugular vein) or under the clavicle (subclavian vein). The intravenous route to administer a product that must act very quickly (emergency) or product well tolerated with the risk of irritating the vein (phlebitis). Subcutaneous: under the skin , often in the abdomen or thighs (insulin) intradermal: in the dermis Intramuscular: into a muscle (thigh) for a product that must act slowly. in a local (topical): the active substance is brought directly to where it must act: ointment , skin cream , skin gel etc.. (Action cutaneous or topical) aerosol iphone ringtones ( airways ) eye drops ( eye ) Effectiveness and evaluation of the drug

The efficacy and drug evaluation takes into account the risk / benefit ratio, and paradoxical side effects, interactions and indications-cons. The risk profile is mainly related to the relationship between side effects and the disease treated. Benefit / risk ratio  Taking into account the benefit / risk: severe side effects and will certainly more acceptable to escape from a cancer that to avoid the pain or the obesity . Side of the doctor, it must be considered in this report the risk the treatment period (cumulative effect), and not to neglect the risk to the fetus when it comes to a pregnant woman (eg thalidomide , better known as Softenon). The indications for dosage and side effects known to be listed on the leaflet accompanying the drug. In addition, some medications are strictly regulated and can be prescribed martial arts denver only under certain conditions (see Prescription, distribution). The data collected, affecting a large number of patients are sent to health authorities who are re-evaluating the risk / benefit ratio of the drug. This may lead to serious consequences that were not discovered through clinical studies and laboratory and lead the authority to withdraw the drug. Adverse drug event  The adverse drug event related to adverse iatrogenic which can be serious ( serious adverse events (SAEs) ), whether the result of a medication error or not. Medicines and anaphylactic reactions  The drugs can cause a reaction anaphylactic or anaphylactoid. This is the case p. ex. of acetylsalicylic acid, inhibitors of the enzyme conversion of angiotensin and angiotensin II road rage receptor antagonists, penicillins, cephalosporins, contrast media, local anesthetics, anti-inflammatory drugs. Cross-reactions are possible, p. ex. between penicillins and cephalosporins. Beta blockers may exacerbate the development of an anaphylactic reaction and counter response to adrenaline. Possible paradoxical effects  Prescribe a drug is not neutral: the induced effects are not always light, they can be serious. The side effects can in turn be misinterpreted as symptoms of something else, or a worsening of the condition of Chicago Criminal Defense Lawyer the person … This complicates the situation and lead to additional requirements (inadequate!) to other side effects, and also addictive. The French are the biggest consumers Bins in the world of sleeping pills (3 times more than the British or the Germans) whose side effects can be depression, with or without suicidal tendencies, phobic states, aggression and violent behavior . In the field of antibiotics overprescribed may ultimately lead to infections harder to treat because of the selection of antibiotic-resistant germs. Environmental impacts or secondary (via food) human and veterinary drugs (including endocrine disruptors ) seems to have been underestimated. Some residues, via urine and feces are not degraded by sewage treatment plants or ingested and seem to have a problem, clearly detectable on the fertility of marine and freshwater, including living downstream of outlets wastewater treatment plants. Certain medications ( chemotherapy , disinfectants ) contain substances that are not degradable ( heavy metals ). Detection and filtering of these substances are still in their infancy 3 . Monitoring of drugs in water is established in France 4 . Drug Interactions  Related Articles: Drug Interactions and drug-food interactions . Much of the study of an active search for interactions with other medicinal substances or not. This study focuses primarily on cytochromes P450, important enzymes of the liver. Cons-indications  Most drugs have a list of cons-indications for their use. These are generally diseases that are aggravated with the taking of that drug. Pharmacovigilance  After the marketing of the drug, pharmaceutical companies have an obligation to study pharmacovigilance is to say, to continue the study of the risks of the drug by collecting all the side effects of drug or able to perform clinical trials for this purpose. Prescribers must also report side effects also unexpected, unknown or severe. The AFSSAPS maintains information availability, drug withdrawals and messages of pharmacovigilance. Commercial aspects

Naming of drugs  Related Articles: International Nonproprietary Name and specialty pharmaceuticals . Increasingly, we use the DCI or “  international name  “to identify and prescribe drugs in general but especially the products become generic what is actually using the international call of the active substance, name recovery in all scientific publications. In example: acetylsalicylic acid (ASA por Acetyl Salicylic Acid) to aspirin was originally a trademark of Bayer. Sale of drugs  Related article: Pharmaceutical industry . The 10 top-selling drugs in the world in 2006, 5 (in billions of dollars) Lipitor (Pfizer): 13.6 Nexium (AstraZeneca): 6.7 Seretide / Advair (GlaxoSmithKline): 6.3 Plavix (Sanofi-Aventis): 5.8 Norvasc (Pfizer): 5.0 Aranesp (Amgen): 5.0 Zyprexa (Eli Lilly): 4.7 Risperdal (Johnson & Johnson): 4.6 Enbrel (Amgen & Wyeth): 4.5 Effexor (Wyeth): 4.0 Issues surrounding the drug

Critics of the pharmaceutical industry  According to WHO , the Transparency Commission and prescribe over 1120 active ingredients of drugs, there are half that is the problem: 35% have no effect and 15% almost no effect 6 . According to Professor David Bins Healy: “remove the ten or even twenty drugs that are sold most in pharmacies, public health would not be affected one iota” (April 2009 issue BOOKS review: “the scandal of the pharmaceutical industry “) “The drugs are marketed in one way or another, counterfeit money. The physician prescribing do not necessarily know what it does. The reason the makers of the health system is left in corrupted by many pharmaceutical companies ” 7 . For Marcia Angell, a physician and electric cigarette former member of the editorial chief of the New England Journal of Medicine, “It is no longer possible to believe the published vps hosting research, or to rely on the ruling family doctor” 8 . A major scandal splashed the WHO now accused of corruption by the pharmaceutical industry as part of pandemic influenza, greatly overestimated the instigation of such D Dr. Albert Osterhaus (known as D r Flu) in order to allow pharmaceutical companies to sell stockpiles of vaccines and treatments antigripppaux 9 . Repayment problems: access to medicines and over-consumption  For countries that have signed the UN Charter , the protection of populations (safety, health protection) against the daily accidents, diseases and disasters (disaster) is one of the functions of the life insurance quotes State (Articles 3, 22 and 25 the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 ). Access to drugs  It is therefore the responsibility of the State to ensure access to care, including drugs, according to the health of the person and not income. This raises two problems: funding; the regulation of drug consumption. If people can not afford to buy drugs, the cost must be provided by the state, so by the tax, social charges or taxes in one way or another (on tobacco , alcohol, etc.). cheap auto insurance quotes it is in fact a means of redistributing wealth. Individuals with income auctions online “sufficient”, but can not cover expensive care, can also get an insurance holding the pooling of risk. Compared with a consumer product, the drug has a special feature in most cases, the person using it (the patient), who chose (the prescribing physician) and who pays (insurance disease) are distinct. One risk is that of not being able to fund other expenses useful. Expenses related to the lengthening of life, (including Long Term Conditions (ALD) in France, representing 60% of the expenses of health insurance) are rising and will continue to grow strongly electronic cigarette in coming years . This is the whole health care system is in question … What happens to expired medications or not used in France?  Each year, medication use outdated causes 22 000 intoxications [ref. needed] . Unused drugs (MNU) can be reported Judaica Bat Mitzvah Gifts to the pharmacist, which transmits them to Cyclamed , body to destroy them. The MNU are not sorted for reuse in the Third World. They are burned in incinerators . The packaging can be recycled with recyclable cartons, blisters and only remnants of drugs can be sent to Cyclamed . They represent 90% of 70 000 tonnes per year [ref. needed] of waste from drugs produced in France. Environmental contamination (including water) by human drug residues or veterinary  Drug residues contaminate the environment (water and soil in particular) through the excreta of humans or animals treated ( urine , feces , exudates , hair , dander , mucus and other fluids from living organisms or their corpses ). Some are endocrine disruptors that may act in very small doses. In rich countries and France, overall, the same molecules are found in the treated water from groundwater or surface, which already shows a general contamination of the terrestrial environment , with variations for some molecules, eg, caffeine , as expected is more common on the surface, as in France that the époxycarbamazépine , the oxazepam and the hydroxyibuprofène (up to 85ng / L) , while carbamazepine is more often found in treated water from groundwater (which suggests that it degrades pikalainaa faster at the surface). In terms of toxicology and ecotoxicology , should be added to these lists pesticides ( whose plant, which are the “medicine plant” , and other unwanted molecules and assess possible synergies between these pollutants and to study the ability of some organisms may bioconcentrate these products In France, according to data released by the ANSES in 2011 10 280 treated water samples were collected from all metropolitan and overseas (including 2 / 3 water from the water and 1 / 3 from surface water). We are looking for 76 drug molecules human or animal, “priority” <ref <AFSSA (2008) – Ranking of drug residues of interest for the analysis of resources and treated water. </ Ref> which 45 molecules been measured (quantification limits: 1 to 50 ng / L, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry) 10 . 19 molecules were detected one or more times, including 14 at levels above the limit of quantification 10 . 75% of the samples do not contain quantifiable molecule 10 , 25% of samples were positive, usually with one to four molecules simultaneously present (usually it was that oxazepam was detected up to 91 ng / L (as parent compound or metabolite of the family of benzodiazepines ) of époxycarbamazépine of carbamazepine and of hydroxyibuprofène . Oxazepam is the most common (). Caffeine has been sought as a tracer or marker found in anthropogenic and 49.6% of raw water and 28.1% of treated water (with a max of 115 ng / L) 10 . Raw water quality: There are more molecules in the treated water (usually less than 25 ng / L). Surface 70% of samples did not contain measurable amounts molecule by the means used. 30 molecules were detected one or more times (including 16 above the limit of quantification). Drug residues reached 400 ng / L (less than 1% of samples). In the treated water: Over 90% of the samples had a cumulative concentration below 25 ng / L 10 . Less than 5% of the treated water had a cumulative grade greater than 100 ng / L 10 . The maximum cumulative found in a sample of 131 ng / L 10 . On May 30, 2011, the first national plan on drug residues in water , was launched jointly by the Ministries of Ecology and Health to evaluate and prioritize, in 18 “actions”, the potential risk related to the presence of drug-related molecules in water, the ecosystem consequences and potential for a health and ways of management and control possible. It must also propose action to reduce drug dispersion in water 11 , while developing pro flight simulator the research. In this context, the AFSSAPS and the ANSES will propose a method for evaluating health risks (late 2011), which will be applied to carbamazepine and other molecules identified in the 2011 campaign 12 Notes and references

↑ The world of Thursday, August 12, 2010 page three ↑ The five classes of drugs limited to prescription  [ archive ]  to the program ECOTOXICOLOGICAL Assessments and removal technologies for pharmaceuticals in wastewaters (REMPHARMAWATER) ( in ) ↑ ANSES, National Campaign of occurrence of drug residues in water intended for human consumption raw water resources and treated water  [ archive casino ] , Report ANSES ↑ IMS Health ↑ “I will go to the end”, Bernard Debré , Monitor Pharmacy (ISSN 0026-9689), No. 2875, March 26, 2011, p. 10 ↑ scandal in the industry  [ archive ] ↑ Corruption of American health  [ archive ] ↑ [1]  [ archive ] ↑ a , b , c , d , e , f , g and h ANSES – Laboratory of Hydrology in Nancy, Report on the national campaign of occurrence of drug residues in water intended for human consumption  [ archive ] , Convention G2799, 18/03/2011 ↑ National Plan for drug residues in water  [ archive ] , Ministry of Environment and Health ↑ Sophie Fabrégat, News-Bulletin environmental drug residues in water: a method of health risk assessment is expected in late 2011  [ archive ] , August 3, 2011 Related articles

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